Deficit Theory and Discontinuity Theory in Language Learning

Understanding how students’ home languages influence school achievement has led to different theoretical explanations. Two major perspectives that shaped educational linguistics—especially in multilingual societies—are Deficit Theory (Eller, 1989) and Discontinuity Theory. These theories explain why learners from certain linguistic backgrounds may face challenges in school.

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1. Deficit Theory (Eller, 1989)

Definition

Deficit Theory argues that children from non-dominant linguistic or cultural backgrounds lack the necessary language skills, abilities, or cultural experiences needed for academic success. According to this theory, the problem lies with the child, family, or community.

Eller (1989) and other deficit theorists assumed that:

• Home language/dialect is “inferior” or “impoverished”

• Students come to school linguistically disadvantaged

• Language errors show cognitive or cultural deficiency

• Schools do not need to adapt; children must change

Implications for Language Learning

This theory leads teachers to believe:

• Children fail because their home language is inadequate

• “Standard” school language (e.g., English) is superior

• Non-standard dialects need to be corrected or replaced

It justifies assimilationist teaching practices, such as:

• Strict correction of home-language features

• Discouraging use of mother tongue in school

• Focusing on “remedial” or “compensatory” programs

Criticism

Modern research strongly rejects Deficit Theory because:

• All languages/dialects are systematic and rule-governed

• Home language supports cognitive development

• Children are not linguistically deficient; school practices are inequitable

• It promotes stereotypes, low expectations, and marginalization

Example:
A child who speaks a non-standard dialect of Malayalam or Urdu is seen as “weak in language,” even though the dialect is rich and complex. Their struggle is due to mismatch—not deficiency.

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2. Discontinuity Theory

Definition

Discontinuity Theory argues that the problem is not deficiency, but a mismatch or discontinuity between home language practices and school language practices.

It suggests that:

• Children’s home language and school language differ in vocabulary, discourse style, and rules

• Schools expect linguistic behavior that children have not been socialized into

• Students face difficulties because school language practices are unfamiliar—not because they are inadequate

Key Ideas

Discontinuity is found in:

1. Language codes

   • Home: informal, context-rich language

   • School: formal, abstract, decontextualized language

2. Communication styles

   • Home: storytelling, oral traditions

   • School: written, analytical, linear communication

3. Interaction patterns

   • Home: collaborative, shared speech

   • School: individual, teacher-controlled discourse

Implications for Language Learning

The focus shifts from “child is the problem” to:

• Schools must bridge home–school language gaps

• Teachers should integrate students’ linguistic resources

• Multilingual pedagogies are needed

• Respect for dialects and mother tongues improves learning

Example:
A child who speaks tribal dialects at home struggles with academic English—not because they lack ability, but because school language demands are discontinuous with home practices.

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3. Key Differences

Deficit Theory	Discontinuity Theory
Blames the child/family	Blames the home–school gap
Home language seen as inferior	Home language seen as different, not wrong
Emphasizes remediation	Emphasizes bridging strategies
Supports assimilation	Supports bilingual/multilingual education
Leads to low expectations	Builds on student strengths

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4. Why These Theories Matter Today

Both theories influence how teachers interpret student performance.

• Deficit perspectives still exist in subtle forms when teachers see dialect-speaking children as slow or weak.

• Discontinuity approaches encourage modern inclusive practices like translanguaging, mother-tongue-based instruction, and culturally responsive teaching.

 

The Impact of School and Home Language Learning Dynamics on the Classroom

Language is central to all learning. For most children, the language they encounter at home is the foundation of their earliest cognitive, social, and emotional development. When they enter school, however, the language of instruction may be different from their home language or dialect. This intersection between home language and school language creates a set of complex dynamics that significantly shape students’ learning experiences, identity formation, participation, and overall academic achievement. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for teachers, as it influences classroom interactions, pedagogy, and the inclusiveness of the learning environment.

Home Language as the Foundation of Learning

The home language equips children with essential tools for thinking, problem-solving, and social communication. It plays a major role in shaping cognitive development and cultural identity. Children use their home language to interpret new information, form relationships, and express emotions. Research in linguistics and educational psychology highlights that strong skills in the first language enhance the acquisition of additional languages. Thus, when students’ home language is recognized and valued in school, it promotes confidence, motivation, and a positive attitude towards learning.

School Language as a Gateway to Academic Success

Schools often adopt the standard or dominant language of the region as the medium of instruction. While this standard language is considered necessary for academic success and societal mobility, it may not align with the linguistic background of many learners, especially in multilingual and multicultural contexts like India. For students who are not proficient in the school language, classroom learning becomes a challenge. They struggle not because of cognitive limitations, but because of linguistic barriers. Accessing textbooks, understanding teachers’ instructions, writing assessments, and participating in discussions become demanding tasks.

Power Dynamics and Linguistic Hierarchies

One of the most significant impacts of school–home language mismatch is the creation of linguistic hierarchies. The school language often possesses greater social prestige, being associated with power, literacy, and opportunities, while home languages or dialects may be regarded as inferior or “nonstandard.” This implicit hierarchy can marginalize students, making them feel that their language, culture, and family background are less valuable. As a result, students may become passive learners, reluctant to speak in class, or even ashamed of their linguistic identity.

These power dynamics also influence teachers’ expectations. Teachers may unconsciously assume that students who speak the standard language are more intelligent or capable. This bias impacts assessment, classroom participation, and the teacher–student relationship.

Impact on Classroom Interaction and Participation

Language shapes students’ classroom behavior. Learners who are comfortable in the school language actively participate, ask questions, and demonstrate understanding. However, those with limited proficiency tend to remain silent, avoid interaction, or depend heavily on rote learning. Group work, discussions, and inquiry-based learning suffer when some students cannot fully express their ideas. In such classrooms, the teacher often dominates talk, limiting opportunities for collaborative construction of knowledge.

Furthermore, students may misinterpret instructions or fail to follow lesson objectives simply because the language used is unfamiliar. This often leads to lower academic performance, not due to lack of capability, but due to language-related obstacles.

Cultural Disconnect and Emotional Impact

Language is also a carrier of culture. When the school language is different from the home language, children may feel alienated from their cultural identity. They experience a cultural disconnect, as stories, examples, metaphors, and classroom conversations may not relate to their lived experiences. This affects not only academic engagement but also emotional well-being. Students may internalize feelings of inadequacy, leading to anxiety, low self-esteem, or withdrawal from learning activities.

The Role of Teachers in Bridging Language Gaps

Teachers play a critical role in addressing home–school language differences. Inclusive language practices can bridge the divide and create equitable classrooms. Some effective strategies include:

• Using the home language strategically, especially in early grades, to scaffold understanding.

• Encouraging translanguaging, where students use multiple languages naturally to make meaning.

• Incorporating culturally relevant examples, stories, and texts from students’ linguistic backgrounds.

• Adapting assessment methods to allow students to demonstrate knowledge even when language proficiency is low.

• Developing bilingual or multilingual teaching materials where possible.

• Validating students’ home languages by acknowledging their richness and legitimacy.

When teachers create a linguistically responsive environment, students feel respected and empowered, leading to better learning outcomes.

Positive Outcomes of Balancing Home and School Language

When schools acknowledge and value home languages, several positive outcomes emerge:

• Improved comprehension and academic performance

• More confident classroom participation

• Stronger student–teacher relationships

• Increased motivation to learn additional languages

• Enhanced linguistic awareness and cognitive flexibility

• A more inclusive and democratic classroom culture

Such classrooms also promote social harmony, reduce discrimination, and celebrate linguistic diversity—important goals in a multicultural society.

Conclusion

The dynamics between home language and school language significantly influence students' learning experiences, participation, identity, and academic success. When the school language differs from the home language, learners face cognitive, emotional, and social challenges. These challenges are intensified by societal power structures that privilege standard languages over local languages or dialects. However, with thoughtful and inclusive teaching practices, schools can turn linguistic diversity into a pedagogical asset rather than a barrier. Recognizing the value of students’ home languages and integrating them into classroom practice not only supports effective learning but also fosters a more equitable and child-centered education system.

Home Language and School Language

 

Home Language and School Language: Power Dynamics of the ‘Standard’ Language

1. Introduction

Language plays a crucial role in learning, identity formation, and social interaction. Children come to school with rich linguistic resources—their home language or dialects. Schools, however, often demand proficiency in a standard language for instructional purposes. This creates power imbalances and affects learning outcomes.

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2. Home Language

Home Language refers to:

• The language or dialect used in a child’s family and community.

• The medium of daily communication, cultural expression, and identity.

Characteristics

• Learned naturally through interaction.

• Often rich in oral tradition, stories, and cultural knowledge.

• May differ from the standardized language used in formal education.

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3. School Language (Standard Language)

School Language is the language selected for formal schooling, textbooks, and assessments.

• Usually a standardized, prestigious, and codified form of a language.

• Examples: Standard English, Standard Hindi, Standard Malayalam.

Characteristics

• Has fixed grammar, vocabulary, and rules.

• Considered the “correct” or “proper” form of language.

• Associated with literacy, power, and academic success.

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4. Power Dynamics: Standard Language vs. Home Language/Dialects

A. Standard Language as a Symbol of Power

• Seen as the language of education, government, and high-status jobs.

• Gives social and economic advantage to those who speak it fluently.

• Creates a hierarchy where standard language speakers are privileged.

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B. Marginalisation of Home Languages and Dialects

• Home languages/dialects are often labelled as “inferior,” “broken,” or “incorrect.”

• Children from marginalized linguistic backgrounds may be seen as less intelligent or less capable.

• This leads to linguistic discrimination.

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C. Impact on Learning

1. Cognitive Load:
   Children are forced to learn content and language simultaneously, leading to learning difficulties.

2. Loss of Confidence:
   Students who feel their home language is inferior may become silent and withdrawn in class.

3. Cultural Disconnect:
   Their cultural identity is not valued in the classroom, leading to alienation.

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D. Linguistic Capital (Pierre Bourdieu)

• Standard language = symbolic capital
  → Gives access to power, status, and opportunities.

• Home languages = lesser-valued capital
  → Limited recognition in formal settings.

This creates social inequality based on language.

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E. Hidden Curriculum

Schools indirectly teach:

• Standard language = valuable

• Home language = not suitable for academics
  This shapes attitudes, reinforcing linguistic hierarchy.

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5. Why Home Language Matters

• Supports conceptual understanding (children express ideas better).

• Strengthens cultural identity and self-esteem.

• Promotes bilingualism/multilingualism.

• Enhances cognitive development.

UNESCO strongly recommends mother tongue-based education.

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6. Bridging Home and School Languages

A. Translanguaging

Allowing children to use their full linguistic repertoire in the classroom.

B. Multilingual Education

Using home language as a medium of instruction at early stages.

C. Valuing Dialects and Local Varieties

Including local stories, oral traditions, and examples in teaching.

D. Teacher Sensitivity

Teachers should avoid correcting dialect differences as “errors” and instead encourage participation.

E. Inclusive Curriculum

Incorporating home languages in activities, songs, conversational tasks, and projects.

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7. Conclusion

The relationship between home language and school language is deeply tied to power, identity, and social inequality. Schools must move from a deficit view of dialects to an asset-based approach, recognizing all languages as valuable. Doing so supports learning, promotes equity, and builds confident multilingual citizens.

 

Language Acquisition and Language Learning – Myth and Reality

Introduction

Language development occurs through two major processes: language acquisition (a natural, unconscious process) and language learning (a conscious, formal process). Many myths surround these concepts, often causing confusion among teachers, parents, and learners. Understanding the realities helps create effective teaching strategies.

1. Myth vs. Reality

Myth 1: Language acquisition and language learning are the same.

Reality:

They are fundamentally different.

• Acquisition happens naturally through interaction and exposure.

• Learning happens through instruction, rules, and correction.

Myth 2: Children learn languages better only because they are more intelligent.

Reality:

Children acquire languages faster because:

• Their brains are more plastic (critical period).

• They learn implicitly through immersion.

• They are not afraid of making mistakes.

Intelligence is not the only factor.

Myth 3: Adults cannot acquire a new language.

Reality:

Adults can acquire languages, but the process may be slower due to decreased brain plasticity and psychological barriers (fear of errors). However, adults excel in explicit learning of rules.

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Myth 4: Grammar teaching alone leads to language proficiency.

Reality:

Grammar instruction supports learning, not acquisition. Real communication, exposure, and meaningful use build true proficiency.

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Myth 5: More vocabulary memorization means better communication.

Reality:

Communication requires:

• Understanding context

• Pragmatic competence

• Ability to use vocabulary in real situations
  Memorization alone is insufficient.

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Myth 6: Mistakes should be corrected immediately for effective learning.

Reality:

Constant correction can block natural acquisition.

• In acquisition: errors are part of the developmental process.

• In learning: selective correction is helpful.

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Myth 7: Language can be acquired only in childhood.

Reality:

Language acquisition can occur at any age with the right conditions:

• Plenty of exposure

• Naturalistic environment

• Low anxiety (Krashen’s Affective Filter hypothesis)

Adults may not sound like native speakers, but can attain full proficiency.

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Myth 8: Classroom teaching is enough for language acquisition.

Reality:

Classrooms contribute mainly to learning, while acquisition needs:

• Real-life interaction

• Context-rich experiences

• Authentic communication opportunities

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2. Key Differences Between Acquisition and Learning

Language Acquisition	Language Learning
Natural, subconscious	Formal, conscious
Occurs through exposure & interaction	Occurs through instruction & rule learning
Error tolerance is high	Errors are corrected
Leads to long-term fluency	Leads to knowledge about the language
Example: A child learning mother tongue	Example: A student studying English grammar

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Conclusion

Understanding the reality of how language develops helps teachers adopt better strategies:

• Create acquisition-rich environments (stories, dialogues, interactions).

• Use explicit learning only as support.

• Encourage risk-taking and meaningful communication.

Balancing acquisition and learning ensures holistic language development.

Significance of Recommendations of Post-Independent India’s Education Commissions

 

Significance of Recommendations of Post-Independent India’s Education Commissions, Policies, and Reports in the Context of Liberalisation, Privatisation, Urbanisation, and Globalisation

Introduction

After independence, India’s education system evolved through a series of commissions, policies, and reports that aimed to shape national development through education. Each policy—from the University Education Commission (1948–49) to the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020—reflected the socio-economic and political realities of its time. In the era of Liberalisation, Privatisation, Urbanisation, and Globalisation (L-P-U-G), these recommendations have gained renewed significance in making education responsive to global changes while preserving national values.

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1. Liberalisation and Education

Liberalisation (initiated in the 1990s) opened India’s economy to global competition, necessitating reforms in education to produce a skilled, flexible, and innovative workforce.

Significant Recommendations & Their Relevance

• Kothari Commission (1964–66) emphasized linking education with productivity, modernization, and national development. This foresight became crucial in the liberalised era when employability and skills became central goals.

• National Policy on Education (1986, revised 1992) recommended a focus on vocational and technical education, aligning perfectly with liberalisation’s demand for human resource development.

• NEP 2020 calls for multidisciplinary and flexible learning pathways—key elements to sustain a liberalized knowledge economy.

Significance:
Liberalisation has transformed education into a tool for economic empowerment. The earlier policy focus on relevance, flexibility, and quality prepared India’s education sector to adapt to the open-market economy.

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2. Privatisation and Education

Privatisation in education gained momentum as the state alone could not meet the increasing demand for higher and technical education.

Significant Recommendations & Their Relevance

• Education Commission (1964–66) suggested diversified funding sources and community participation, indirectly paving the way for future private involvement.

• NPE 1986 and POA 1992 recognized the role of non-governmental organizations and private institutions in expanding access.

• NEP 2020 endorses public–private partnerships (PPPs), autonomy for higher educational institutions, and a transparent regulatory system (HECI), ensuring quality and accountability.

Significance:
Privatisation has increased access and choice but also raised concerns about equity and commercialization. The balanced recommendations of these policies stress regulated privatisation to preserve the social purpose of education.

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3. Urbanisation and Educational Expansion

Rapid urbanisation has influenced educational demand, curriculum orientation, and institutional distribution.

Significant Recommendations & Their Relevance

• Radhakrishnan Commission (1948–49) and Kothari Commission emphasized balanced regional development and rural education upliftment to prevent urban–rural educational disparity.

• NPE 1986 proposed schemes like Operation Blackboard and District Institutes of Education and Training (DIETs) to strengthen rural and semi-urban education.

• NEP 2020 promotes local language instruction, community engagement, and digital learning to bridge urban–rural divides.

Significance:
Urbanisation calls for inclusive education planning. These policy recommendations remain vital for ensuring equitable access, reducing urban bias, and addressing migration-driven educational disparities.

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4. Globalisation and Knowledge Society

Globalisation transformed education into a global commodity and a means of cultural exchange. Indian education policies had to ensure global competitiveness without losing national identity.

Significant Recommendations & Their Relevance

• Kothari Commission envisioned education for international understanding and cooperation.

• NPE 1986/92 emphasized science, technology, and environmental education to meet global standards.

• NEP 2020 advocates internationalization—foreign university collaboration, credit transfer, research exchange, and global benchmarking—while upholding India’s civilizational ethos.

Significance:
Education became the medium for India’s global presence. The policy focus on innovation, ICT, research excellence, and cultural rootedness ensures India’s participation in the global knowledge economy.

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5. Integrative Significance

Across the decades, the recommendations of various commissions and policies collectively emphasize:

• Equity, quality, and access as the three pillars of educational development.

• Integration of skills, values, and technology to meet global challenges.

• Education as both an economic instrument and a social equalizer.

• Creation of a globally competent yet culturally grounded citizenry.

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Conclusion

The evolution of educational recommendations in post-independent India reveals a progressive adaptation to L-P-U-G realities. From Kothari’s call for “education as a national investment” to NEP 2020’s vision of “global citizenship education,” each policy has shaped an education system capable of sustaining India’s socio-economic transformation. In the globalized era, their significance lies in maintaining a balance between modernization and moralization, competitiveness and inclusivity, globalization and localization.

Key References

1. University Education Commission Report (1948–49)

2. Secondary Education Commission (1952–53)

3. Education Commission (Kothari, 1964–66)

4. National Policy on Education (1968, 1986, 1992)

5. National Knowledge Commission (2005–09)

6. National Education Policy (2020)

List of amendments to the Constitution of India

 

As of September 2024, there have been 106 amendments to the Constitution of India since it was first enacted in 1950.There are three types of amendments to the Constitution of India of which the second and third types of amendments are governed by Article 368.

The first type of amendment includes that can be passed by a "simple majority" in each house of the Parliament of India.

The second type of amendments includes that can be effected by the parliament by a prescribed "special majority" in each house; and

The third type of amendments includes those that require, in addition to such a "special majority" in each house of the parliament, ratification by at least one half of the State Legislatures.

The third type amendments that are made to the constitution are amendments No. 3, 6, 7, 8, 13, 14, 15, 16, 22, 23, 24, 25, 28, 30, 31, 32, 35, 36, 38, 39, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 51, 54, 61, 62, 70, 73, 74, 75, 79, 84, 88, 95, 99, 101 and 104.[3]

Although constitutional amendments require the support of a two-thirds majority in both houses of Parliament (with some amendments requiring ratification by a majority of state legislatures), the Indian Constitution is the most amended national constitution in the world.[4] The Constitution spells out governmental powers with so much detail that many matters addressed by statute in other democracies must be addressed via constitutional amendment in India. As a result, the Constitution is amended roughly twice a year. The main purpose of the amendments is to become more relevant.

List of Amendments

 

No.	Amendments	Enforced since	Objectives	Prime Minister	President
1st	15, 19, 85, 87, 174, 176, 341, 342, 372 and 376. Insert articles 31A and 31B. Insert schedule 9.[5]	18 June 1951[6]	Added special provision for the advancement of any socially and educationally[7] backward classes or for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (SCs and STs). To fully secure the constitutional validity of zamindari abolition laws and to place reasonable restriction on freedom of speech. A new constitutional device, called Schedule 9 introduced to protect against laws that are contrary to the Constitutionally guaranteed fundamental rights. These laws encroach upon property rights, freedom of speech and equality before law.	Jawaharlal Nehru	Rajendra Prasad
2nd	Amend article 81(1)(b).[8]	2 May 1953	Removed the upper population limit for a parliamentary constituency by amending Article 81(1)(b).
3rd	Amend schedule 7.[9]	22 February 1955	Re-enacted entry 33 of the Concurrent List in the Seventh Schedule with relation to include trade and commerce in, and the production, supply and distribution of four classes of essential commodities, viz., foodstuffs, including edible oil seeds and oils; cattle fodder, including oilcakes and other concentrates; raw cotton whether ginned or unginned, and cotton seeds; and raw jute.
4th	Amend articles 31, 31A, and 305. Amend schedule 9.[10]	27 April 1955	Restrictions on property rights and inclusion of related bills in Schedule 9 of the constitution.
5th	Amend article 3.[11]	24 December 1955	Empowered the President to prescribe a time limit for a State Legislature to convey its views on proposed Central laws relating to the formation of new States and alteration of areas, boundaries or names of existing States. Also permitted the President to extend the prescribed limit.
6th	Amend articles 269 and 286. Amend schedule 7.[12]	11 September 1956	Amend the Union List and State List with respect to raising of taxes.
7th	Amend articles 1, 3, 49, 80, 81, 82, 131, 153, 158, 168, 170, 171, 216, 217, 220, 222, 224, 230, 231 and 232. Insert articles 258A, 290A, 298, 350A, 350B, 371, 372A and 378A. Amend part 8. Amend schedules 1, 2, 4 and 7.[13]	1 November 1956	Reorganisation of states on linguistic lines, abolition of Class A, B, C, D states and introduction of Union territories.
8th	Amend article 334.[14]	5 January 1960	Extended the period of reservation of seats for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and Anglo-Indians in the Lok Sabha and the State Legislative Assemblies till 1970.
9th	Amend schedule 1.[15]	28 December 1960	Minor adjustments to territory of Indian Union consequent to agreement with Pakistan for settlement of disputes by demarcation of border villages, etc.
10th	Amend article 240. Amend schedule 1.[16]	11 August 1961	Incorporation of Dadra and Nagar Haveli as a Union Territory, consequent to acquisition from Portugal.
11th	Amend articles 66 and 71.[17]	19 December 1961	Election of Vice President by Electoral College consisting of members of both Houses of Parliament, instead of election by a Joint Sitting of Parliament. Indemnify the President and Vice President Election procedure from challenge on grounds of existence of any vacancies in the electoral college.
12th	Amend article 240. Amend schedule 1.[18]	20 December 1961	Incorporation of Goa, Daman and Diu as a Union Territory, consequent to acquisition from Portugal.
13th	Amend article 170. Insert new article 371A.[19]	1 December 1962	Special protection under Article 371A for newly create State of Nagaland.		Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
14th	Amend articles 81 and 240. Insert article 239A. Amend schedules 1 and 4.[20]	28 December 1962	Incorporation of Pondicherry into the Union of India and creation of Legislative Assemblies for Himachal Pradesh, Tripura, Manipur and Goa.
15th	Amend articles 124, 128, 217, 222, 224, 226, 297, 311 and 316. Insert article 224A. Amend schedule 7.[21]	5 October 1963	Raise retirement age of High Court judges from 60 to 62 and other minor amendments for rationalising interpretation of rules regarding judges etc.
16th	Amend articles 19, 84 and 173. Amend schedule 3.[22]	5 October 1963	Make it obligatory for seekers of public office to swear their allegiance to the Indian Republic and prescribe the various obligatory templates.
17th	Amend article 31A. Amend schedule 9.[23]	20 June 1964	To secure the constitutional validity of acquisition of Estates and place land acquisition laws in Schedule 9 of the constitution.
18th	Amend article 3.[24]	27 August 1966	Technical Amendment to include Union Territories in Article 3 and hence permit reorganisation of Union Territories.	Lal Bahadur Shastri
19th	Amend article 324.[25]	11 December 1966	Abolish Election Tribunals and enable trial of election petitions by regular High Courts.
20th	Insert article 233A.[26]	22 December 1966	Indemnify & validate judgments, decrees, orders and sentences passed by judges and to validate the appointment, posting, promotion and transfer of judges barring a few who were not eligible for appointment under article 233. Amendment needed to overcome the effect of judgment invalidating appointments of certain judges in the state of Uttar Pradesh.
21st	Amend schedule 8.[27]	10 April 1967	Include Sindhi as an official language.	Indira Gandhi
22nd	Amend article 275. Insert articles 244A and 371B.[28]	25 September 1969	Provision to form Autonomous states within the State of Assam.		V. V. Giri
23rd	Amend articles 330, 332, 333 and 334.[29]	23 January 1970	Discontinued reservation of seats for the Scheduled Tribes in Nagaland, both in the Lok Sabha and the State Legislative Assembly and stipulated that not more than one Anglo-Indian could be nominated by the Governor to any State Legislative Assembly. Extend reservation for SCs and STs and Anglo-Indian members in the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies for another ten years, i.e. up to 1980.
24th	Amend articles 13 and 368.[30]	5 November 1971	Article 13(4) added. Enable Parliament to dilute Fundamental Rights through amendments to the Constitution. It was made compulsory for the President to give consent to the Constitution Amendment Bill.
25th	Amend article 31. Insert article 31C.[31]	8 December 1971	Restrict property rights and compensation in case the state takes over private property. However, the Supreme Court quashed a part of Article 31C (4) to the extent it took away the power of judicial review. This was done in the landmark case of Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973) 4 SCC 225 which for the first time enunciated the Basic structure doctrine.
26th	Amend article 366. Insert article 363A. Remove articles 291 and 362.[32]	28 December 1971	Abolition of privy purse paid to former rulers of princely states which were incorporated into the Indian Republic.
27th	Amend articles 239A and 240. Insert articles 239B and 371C.[33]	(i)30 December 1971 & (ii) 15 February 1972[6]	Reorganisation of Mizoram into a Union Territory with a legislature and council of ministers.
28th	Insert article 312A. Remove article 314.[34]	29 August 1972	Rationalise Civil Service rules to make it uniform across those appointed prior to Independence and post Independence.
29th	Amend schedule 9.[35]	9 June 1972	'Kerala land reform acts' and amendments to these act placed under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
30th	Amend article 133.[36]	9 June 1972	Change the basis for appeals in Supreme Court of India in case of Civil Suits from value criteria to one involving substantial question of law.
31st	Amend articles 81, 330 and 332.[37]	17 October 1973	Increase size of Parliament from 525 to 545 seats. Increased seats going to the new states formed in North East India and minor adjustment consequent to 1971 Delimitation exercise.
32nd	Amend article 371. Insert articles 371D and 371E. Amend schedule 7.[38]	1 July 1974	Protection of regional rights in Telangana and Andhra regions of State of Andhra Pradesh. Supreme Court in P. Sambamurthy v. State of Andhra Pradesh 1987 SCC (1) 362 held clause (3) and (5) along with its Proviso of Article 371D as unconstitutional and void. It was found to be violative of basic structure doctrine, against the concept of justice and the principle of the rule of law.[39]
33rd	Amend articles 101 and 190.[40]	19 May 1974	Prescribes procedure for resignation by members of parliament and state legislatures and the procedure for verification and acceptance of resignation by house speaker.
34th	Amend schedule 9.[41]	7 September 1974	Place land reform acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.		Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed
35th	Amend articles 80 and 81. Insert article 2A. Insert schedule 10.[42]	1 March 1975	Terms and Conditions for the Incorporation of Sikkim into the Union of India.
36th	Amend articles 80 and 81. Insert article 371F. Remove article 2A. Amend schedules 1 and 4. Remove schedule 10.[43]	26 April 1975	Formation of Sikkim as a State within the Indian Union.
37th	Amend articles 239A and 240.[44]	3 May 1975	Formation of Arunachal Pradesh legislative assembly.
38th	Amend articles 123, 213, 239B, 352, 356, 359 and 360.[45]	1 August 1975	Enhances the powers of President and Governors to pass ordinances.
39th	Amend articles 71 and 329. Insert article 329A. Amend schedule 9.[46]	10 August 1975	Amendment designed to negate the judgement of Allahabad HC in State of Uttar Pradesh v. Raj Narain 1975 SCR (3) 333 invalidating PM Indira Gandhi's election to parliament. Amendment placed restrictions on judicial scrutiny of post of Prime Minister.[47] Irrespective of electoral malpractice, no case can be filed against president, vice president, speaker of lok sabha and prime minister. Later, clauses (4) and (5) of Article 329A were struck down by the Supreme Court in Indira Nehru Gandhi v. Raj Narain 1976 (2) SCR 347, for being in violation of basic structure.
40th	Amend article 297. Amend schedule 9.[48]	27 May 1976	Enable Parliament to make laws with respect to Exclusive Economic Zone and vest the mineral wealth with Union of India. Place land reform & other acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
41st	Amend article 316.[49]	7 September 1976	Raise Retirement Age Limit of Chairmen and Members of Joint Public Service Commissions and State Public Service Commissions from sixty to sixty two. No case can be filed against prime minister, governor, president, even after they demit office (which was later struck down by supreme court)
42nd	Amend articles 31, 31C, 39, 55, 74, 77, 81, 82, 83, 100, 102, 103, 105, 118, 145, 150, 166, 170, 172, 189, 191, 192, 194, 208, 217, 225, 226, 227, 228, 311, 312, 330, 352, 353, 356, 357, 358, 359, 366, 368 and 371F. Insert articles 31D, 32A, 39A, 43A, 48A, 131A, 139A, 144A, 226A, 228A and 257A. Insert parts 4A and 14A. Amend schedule 7.[50]	3 January, 1 February & 1 April 1977[6]	Amendment passed during internal emergency by Indira Gandhi. Provides for curtailment of fundamental rights, imposes fundamental duties and changes to the basic structure of the constitution by making India a "Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic Republic". However, the Supreme Court, in Minerva Mills v. Union of India 1980 SCC (3) 625, quashed the amendments to Articles 31C and 368 as it was in contravention with the basic structure of the Constitution.
43rd	Amend articles 145, 226, 228 and 366. Remove articles 31D, 32A, 131A, 144A, 226A and 228A.[51]	13 April 1978	Amendment passed after revocation of internal emergency in the Country. Repeals some of the more 'Anti-Freedom' amendments enacted through Amendment Bill 42.	Morarji Desai	Neelam Sanjiva Reddy
44th	Amend articles 19, 22, 30, 31A, 31C, 38, 71, 74, 77, 83, 103, 105, 123, 132, 133, 134, 139A, 150, 166, 172, 192, 194, 213, 217, 225, 226, 227, 239B, 329, 352, 356, 358, 359, 360 and 371F. Insert articles 134A and 361A. Remove articles 31, 257A and 329A. Amend part 12. Amend schedule 9.[52]	20 June, 1 August & 6 September 1979[6]	Amendment passed after revocation of internal emergency in the Country. Article 19(1)(f) right to property was omitted. Provides for human rights safeguards and mechanisms to prevent abuse of executive and legislative authority. Annuls some Amendments enacted in Amendment Bill 42.
45th	Amend article 334.[53]	25 January 1980	Extend reservation for SCs and STs and nomination of Anglo Indian members in Parliament and State Assemblies for another ten years i.e. up to 1990.	Indira Gandhi
46th	Amend articles 269, 286 and 366. Amend schedule 7.[54]	2 February 1983	Amendment to negate judicial pronouncements on scope and applicability on Sales Tax.		Zail Singh
47th	Amend schedule 9.[55]	26 August 1984	Place land reform acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
48th	Amend article 356.[56]	1 April 1985	Article 356 amended to permit President's rule up to two years in the state of Punjab.
49th	Amend article 244. Amend schedules 5 and 6.[57]	11 September 1984	Recognise Tripura as a tribal state and enable the creation of a Tripura Tribal Areas Autonomous District Council.
50th	Amend article 33.[58]	11 September 1984	Technical Amendment to curtailment of Fundamental Rights as per Part III as prescribed in Article 33 to cover Security Personnel protecting property and communication infrastructure.
51st	Amend articles 330 and 332.[59]	16 June 1986	Provide reservation to Scheduled Tribes in Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh in Loksabha, similarly for Meghalaya and Arunachal in their Legislative Assemblies.
52nd	Amend articles 101, 102, 190 and 191. Insert schedule 10.[60]	1 March 1985	Anti Defection Law – Provide disqualification of members from parliament and assembly in case of defection from one party to other. However, para 7 of the 10th Schedule was struck down by the Supreme Court in the case of Kihoto Hollohan v. Zachillhu 1992 SCR (1) 686, for being in contravention with Article 368 of the Constitution.	Rajiv Gandhi
53rd	Insert article 371G.[61]	20 February 1986	Special provision with respect to the State of Mizoram.
54th	Amend articles 125 and 221. Amend schedule 2.[62]	1 April 1986	Increase the salary of Chief Justice of India & other Judges and to provide for determining future increases without the need for constitutional amendment.
55th	Insert article 371H.[63]	20 February 1987	Special powers to Governor consequent to formation of state of Arunachal Pradesh.
56th	Insert article 371I.[64]	30 May 1987	Transition provision to enable formation of state of Goa.
57th	Amend article 332.[65]	21 September 1987	Provide reservation to Scheduled Tribes in Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh Legislative Assemblies.		R. Venkataraman
58th	Insert article 394A. Amend part 22.[66]	9 December 1987	Provision to publish authentic Hindi translation of constitution as on date and provision to publish authentic Hindi translation of future amendments.
59th	Amend article 356. Insert article 359A.[67]	30 March 1988	Article 356 amended to permit President's rule up to three years in the state of Punjab, Articles 352 and Article 359A amended to permit imposing emergency in state of Punjab or in specific districts of the state of Punjab.
60th	Amend article 276.[68]	20 December 1988	Profession Tax increased from a maximum of Rs. 250/- to a maximum of Rs. 2500/-.
61st	Amend article 326.[69]	28 March 1989	Reduce age for voting rights from 21 to 18.
62nd	Amend article 334.[70]	25 January 1990	Extend reservation for SCs and STs and nomination of Anglo Indian members in Parliament and State Assemblies for another ten years i.e. up to 2000.	V. P. Singh
63rd	Amend article 356. Remove article 359A.[71]	6 January 1990	Emergency powers applicable to State of Punjab, accorded in Article 359A as per amendment 59 repealed.
64th	Amend article 356.[72]	16 April 1990	Article 356 amended to permit President's rule up to three years and six months in the state of Punjab.
65th	Amend article 338.[73]	12 March 1992[6]	National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes formed and its statutory powers specified in The Constitution.
66th	Amend schedule 9.[74]	7 June 1990	Place land reform acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
67th	Amend article 356.[75]	4 October 1990	Article 356 amended to permit President's rule up to four years in the state of Punjab.
68th	Amend article 356.[76]	12 March 1991	Article 356 amended to permit President's rule up to five years in the state of Punjab.	Chandra Shekhar
69th	Insert articles 239AA and 239AB.[77]	1 February 1992[6]	To provide for a legislative assembly and council of ministers for National Capital Territory of Delhi. Delhi continues to be a Union Territory.	P. V. Narasimha Rao
70th	Amend articles 54 and 239AA.[78]	21 December 1991	Include National Capital Territory of Delhi and Union Territory of Pondicherry in Electoral College for presidential election.
71st	Amend schedule 8.[79]	31 August 1992	Include Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali as official languages.		Shankar Dayal Sharma
72nd	Amend article 332.[80]	5 December 1992	Provide reservation to Scheduled Tribes in Tripura State Legislative Assembly.
73rd	Insert part 9. Insert schedule 11.[81]	24 April 1992	Statutory provisions for Panchyat Raj as third level of administration in villages.
74th	Insert part 9A, insert schedule 12, amend article 280.[82]	1 June 1992	Statutory provisions for Local Administrative bodies as third level of administration in urban areas such as towns and cities.
75th	Amend article 323B.[83]	15 May 1994	Provisions for setting up Rent Control Tribunals.
76th	Amend schedule 9.[84]	31 August 1994	Enable continuance of 69% reservation in Tamil Nadu by including the relevant Tamil Nadu Act under 9th Schedule of the constitution.
77th	Amend article 16.[85]	17 June 1995	A technical amendment to protect reservation to SCs and STs Employees in promotions.
78th	Amend schedule 9.[86]	30 August 1995	Place land reform acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
79th	Amend article 334.[87]	25 January 2000	Extend reservation for SCs and STs and nomination of Anglo Indian members in Parliament and State Assemblies for another ten years i.e. up to 2010.	Atal Bihari Vajpayee	K. R. Narayanan
80th	Amend articles 269 and 270. Remove article 272.[88]	9 June 2000	Implement Tenth Finance Commission recommendation to simplify the tax structures by pooling and sharing all taxes between states and the centre.
81st	Amend article 16.[89]	9 June 2000	Protect SCs and STs reservation in filling backlog of vacancies.
82nd	Amend article 335.[90]	8 September 2000	Permit relaxation of qualifying marks and other criteria in reservation in promotion for SCs and STs candidates.
83rd	Amend article 243M.[91]	8 September 2000	Exempt Arunachal Pradesh from reservation for Scheduled Castes in Panchayati Raj institutions.
84th	Amend articles 55, 81, 82, 170, 330 and 332.[92]	21 February 2002	Extend the usage of 1971 national census population figures for statewise distribution of parliamentary seats.
85th	Amend article 16.[93]	4 January 2002	A technical amendment to protect Consequential seniority in case of promotions of SCs and STs Employees.
86th	Amend articles 45 and 51A. Insert article 21A.[94]	12 December 2002	Provides Right to Education until the age of fourteen.		A. P. J. Abdul Kalam
87th	Amend articles 81, 82, 170 and 330.[95]	22 June 2003	Extend the usage of 2001 national census population figures for statewise distribution of parliamentary seats.
88th	Amend article 270. Insert article 268A. Amend schedule 7.[96]	15 January 2004	To extend statutory cover for levy and utilisation of Service Tax.
89th	Amend article 338. Insert article 338A.[97]	28 September 2003	The National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes was bifurcated into The National Commission for Scheduled Castes and The National Commission for Scheduled Tribes.
90th	Amend article 332.[98]	28 September 2003	Reservation in Assam Assembly relating to Bodoland Territory Area.
91st	Amend articles 75 and 164. Insert article 361B. Amend schedule 10.[99]	1 January 2004	Restrict the size of council of ministers to 15% of legislative members & to strengthen Anti Defection laws.
92nd	Amend schedule 8.[100]	7 January 2004	Include Bodo, Dogri, Santali and Mathili as official languages.
93rd	Amend article 15.[101]	20 January 2006	To enable provision of reservation (27%) for Other Backward Class(OBCs) in government as well as private educational institutions.	Manmohan Singh
94th	Amend article 164.[102]	12 June 2006	To provide for a Minister of Tribal Welfare in newly created Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh States including Madhya Pradesh and Odisha.
95th	Amend article 334.[103]	25 January 2010	To extend reservation for SCs and STs and nomination of Anglo Indian members in Parliament and State Assemblies for another ten years i.e. up to 2020.		Pratibha Patil
96th	Amend schedule 8.[104]	23 September 2011	Substituted "Odia" in the place of "Oriya".
97th	Amend Art 19 and added Art 43B and Part IXB.[105]	12 January 2012	Added the words "or co-operative societies" after the word "or unions" in Article 19(l)(c) and insertion of article 43B i.e., Promotion of Co-operative Societies and added Part-IXB i.e., The Co-operative Societies. In July 2021 Supreme Court Struck Part of the amendment as it was not ratified by the states.[106] The amendment objective is to encourage economic activities of cooperatives which in turn help progress of rural India. It is expected to not only ensure autonomous and democratic functioning of cooperatives, but also the accountability of the management to the members and other stakeholders.[107]
98th	To insert Article 371J in the Constitution[108]	1 January 2013	To empower the Governor of Karnataka to take steps to develop the Hyderabad-Karnataka Region.[108]		Pranab Mukherjee
99th	Insertion of new articles 124A, 124B and 124C. Amendments to Articles 127, 128, 217, 222, 224A, 231.[109]	13 April 2015[110] Struck down on 16 October 2015	Formation of a National Judicial Appointments Commission. 16 State assemblies out of 29 States including Goa, Rajasthan, Tripura, Gujarat and Telangana ratified the Central Legislation, enabling the President of India to give assent to the bill.[111] The amendment was struck down by the Supreme Court on 16 October 2015.	Narendra Modi
100th	Amendment of First Schedule to Constitution[112]	31 July 2015	Exchange of certain enclave territories with Bangladesh and conferment of citizenship rights to residents of enclaves consequent to signing of Land Boundary Agreement (LBA) Treaty between India and Bangladesh.
101st	Addition of articles 246A, 269A, 279A. Deletion of Article 268A. Amendment of articles 248, 249, 250, 268, 269, 270, 271, 286, 366, 368, Sixth Schedule, Seventh Schedule.[113]	1 July 2017	Introduced the Goods and Services Tax.
102nd	Addition of articles 338B, 342A, and Added Clause 26C. Modification of articles 338, 366.[114]	11 August 2018	Constitutional status to National Commission for Backward Classes		Ram Nath Kovind
103rd	Amendment to Article 15, added Clause [6], Amendment to Article 16, added Clause [6].[115]	12 January 2019	A maximum of 10% Reservation for Economically Weaker Sections (EWSs) of citizens of classes other than the classes mentioned in clauses (4) and (5) of Article 15, i.e. Classes other than socially and educationally backward classes of citizens or the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes. Inserted Clause [6] under Article 15 as well as Inserted Clause [6] under Article 16.
104th	Amend article 334.[116]	25 January 2020	To extend the reservation of seats for SCs and STs in the Lok Sabha and states assemblies for another 10 years i.e. up to 2030. Removed the reserved seats for the Anglo-Indian community in the Lok Sabha and state assemblies by not extending it further.[117]
105th	Amended Article 338B, 342A and 366[118]	10 August 2021	To restore the power of the state governments to identify Other Backward Classes (OBCs) that are socially and educationally backward. This amendment annulled the Supreme Court judgement of 11 May 2021, which had empowered only the Central government for such identification.[119]
106th	Amended article 239AA. Insertion of articles 330A, 332A, 334A.	28 September 2023[120]	To reserve one-third of the seats in the Lok Sabha(330A), state legislative assemblies(332A) and Delhi Legislative Assembly(239AA) for women for a period for 15 years after coming effect.(334A)